Tattva Sūtra – Chapter Three

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

nanu parameśvarasya nirguṇasya sac-cid-ānanda-mayasya viśva-racanādi kṣamākāro kīdṛśī vā śaktir-ity-apekṣāyām acit-padārtha-prakaraṇam ārabhate. śrī-sūtra-kāraḥ

Is it not true that the Supreme Lord, who is beyond the modes of nature and comprised of sac-cid-ānanda, possesses a potency for universal creation etc? Thus, the discussion on the subject of that which is non-conscious begins. The venerable author of the sūtras writes thus.

SŪTRA 21

māyā-śaktir acid-guṇavatī parāvara-kārya-rūpā ca

(The māyā potency is endowed with the modes of material nature and takes on the form of things that are both superior and inferior.

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

tatra māyā-nāma-parameśvarī śaktir, ‘māyāṁ tu prakṛtiṁ vidyāt māyinaṁ tu maheśvaraṁ’ iti śruteḥ. sā tu acit-padārthau jīveśvarau tad-bhinnā sattvādi-guṇa-viśiṣṭā. parāvara-kārya-rūpā parama-mahat-parimāṇam avaraṁ nikṛṣṭa-parimāṇaṁ yat kāryaṁ tad-rūpeṇa pariṇatā bhavati. śvetāśvataopaniṣadi ajā-svarūpam uktvā tad-itaratvam īśvarasya darśitam.

That potency of the Supreme Lord is known as māyā, as stated in the śruti, ‘One should know māyā to be material nature, and He who wields māyā to be the Supreme Lord.’ (Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.10). That substance which is non-conscious, characterised by modes such as sattva-guṇa etc. is indeed different to the jīvas and Īśvara. This inert material energy, which is the cause of the phenomenal world, transforms all actions, from the greatest to the smallest, accordingly. The Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad and other texts refer to it as inherently unborn (ajā) and state that it is different from Īśvara.

ajam ekaṁ lohita-śukla-kṛṣṇaṁ
bahvīḥ prajāḥ janayanti sarūpam
ajo hy eko juṣamāno’nuśete
jahāty enaṁ bhukta-bhogam ajo’nyaḥ

The one unborn material nature which is red (raja-guṇa), white (sattva-guṇa) and black (tama-guṇa) produces many similar unborn progeny. One unborn individual becomes attached to material nature and enjoys it, while another unborn individual rejects it when his enjoyment is over. (Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 4.5)

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

In the commentaries on the sixth and seventh sūtras, it is shown that the sovereignty of Bhagavān alone is the primeval potency of the Lord. This is seen in the Govinda Bhāṣya of the Vedānta Sūtra, as follows:

pralaye’ti saukṣmād-vibhāganarhānu-bhūta sattvādi-guṇā tamaḥ śabditā mūla-prakṛtir ajety-ucyate. sṛṣṭi-kāle tūdbhūta-sattvādi-guṇā vibhakta-nāma-rūpā pradhānāvyaktādi-śabditā lohitādy-ākārā jyotir utpanneti. mahān avyakte līyate’vyaktam-akṣare’akṣaraṁ tamasīti śruteḥ.

During cosmic dissolution, the subtle elements, which are characterised by sattva and the other modes of nature, are referred to as mūlā-prakṛti (the primeval potency), which is known by the word tamas, and is described as ajā (unborn). At the time of universal creation, the modes of material nature manifest as distinct names and forms, which is referred to by the words avyakta (unmanifested) and pradhāna (primary substance). Thus, those forms of material nature which are red etc. and said to manifest from Brahman. The śruti states: ‘The mahat-tattva merges into avyakta. Avyakta merges into akṣara, and akṣara merges into tamas.’ (Govinda Bhāṣya 1.4.10)

This potency possesses infinite effects, among which, two kinds of effects are perceived by human beings who engage in activities. This is stated in the Vājasaneya Upaniṣad:

vidyāṁ cavidyāṁ ca yas tad vedobhayaṁ saha

One who knows both knowledge and ignorance together is indeed knowledgeable. (Īṣopaniṣad 11)

Consciousness arises from knowledge (vidyā), while matter (jaḍa) originates from ignorance (avidyā). That ignorance, which gives rise to matter, is referred to as māyā. Although the primeval potency is referred to as Viṣṇu’s māyā in the Mārkanḍeya Purāṇa, the Nārada Pañcarātna, and many other śāstras, the term māyā primarily signifies the avidyā-prakṛti (the potency of ignorance) because the tattva implied by the word māyā does not pertain to the jīvas. Since the jīva is not included in that māyā, then the jīva-śakti is seen as distinct from that and cannot be considered as originating from the primeval potency. This is because the jīva-śakti and this māyā-śakti are both merely different effects of the one primeval potency, as stated in the Sāṅkhya philosophy in regards to the Puruṣa:

mūla-prakṛtir avikṛtir mahad-ādyāḥ prakṛti-vikṛtayaḥ sapta
ṣoḍaśakas tu vikāro na prakṛtir vikṛtiḥ puruṣaḥ

The primeval material nature is itself not a transformation. The seven elements*(1) starting with mahat are both causes and transformations, and the sixteen elements*(2) are only transformations. The Puruṣa is neither a cause nor a transformation. (Sāṅkhya Kārikā 3)

*(1) The seven elements are both causes and intelligence, false ego, sound, touch, form, taste, and odour.
*(2) The sixteen elements are the mind, the five cognitive senses, the five working senses,, and the five gross elements.

Thus, Bhagavān tells Brahmā:

ṛte’rthaṁ yat pratīyeta na pratīyeta cātmani
tad vidyād ātmano māyāṁ yathābhāso yathā tamaḥ

If that which appears to have some purpose, has no connection to Me, then you should understand this to be My māyā potency. It is like an appearance of light or darkness. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 2.9.34)

That māyā is acit, in other words, the source of matter, as stated in the Śāṇḍilya Sūtra:

tacchaktir māyā jaḍa-sāmānyāt

His potency is māyā, which is present in matter. (Śāṇḍilya Sūtra 3.1.86)

It is also said in the Bhagavad-gītā:

mayādhyakṣeṇa prakṛtiḥ sūyate sa-carācaram
hetunānena kaunteya jagad viparivartate

Under My command, material nature produces the universe with all its moving and non-moving beings. O son of Kuntī, because of this the universe continually manifests. (Bhagavad-gītā 9.10)

That māyā is endowed with the modes of material nature, as stated in the Bhagavad-gītā:

daivī hy-eṣā guṇamayī mama māyā duratyayā
māmeva ye prapadyante māyām etāṁ taranti te

This divine potency of Mine which consists of the three modes of material nature is extremely difficult to defeat. Yet those that take shelter of Me can cross beyond it. (Bhagavad-gītā 7.14)

What the substance of material nature is can never be fully comprehended. Only the senses explain the qualities of material nature. For this reason, material nature is referred to as avyakta (imperceptible) in the śāstra. Whatever the mind focusses on in relation to material nature is merely its qualities. Those that follow Vaiśeṣika*(3) have explored material nature down to the level of the atom. Thus we find in the second section in the Fourth Chapter of the sūtras of Kaṇāda:

sad-akāraṇavan-nityam

Existence is eternal. There is no cause. (Vaiśeṣika-sūtras 4.1.1)

It is also stated in the Vaiśeṣika-sūtras:

niravayavaṁ dravyam-avadhiḥ sa eva paramāṇuḥ

Indeed, there is nothing beyond the bounds of the atom which is an indivisible substance. (Vaiśeṣika-sūtras 4.1.2)

*(3) Vaiśeṣika is one of the six philosophies of Ancient India and was founded by Kaṇāda Muni. Vaiśeṣika postulates that the sum and substance of everything is atoms.

It is the activity of science to determine the scientific existence of a physical substance along with all its qualities through the process of analysis. However, it is not logical to refer to the atom as an eternal, indivisible substance, beyond which there is nothing. That is because, although it may be accepted that in material nature, an atom can extend to the limits of minuteness, nevertheless, that extent only pertains to its minute qualities. It has not attained the limits of material nature itself. Minuteness is there, and similarly, there is also a quality known as parama-mahān (vastness) in material nature. The atom is limited to minuteness, and that which is huge only extends to the level of its vastness. Thus, nothing can be said to be the limit of material nature between minuteness and vastness. Therefore, only accept a condition of minuteness in material nature which is known as the atom can be accepted. In the Bhāgavata, Śrī Maitreya says:

caramaḥ sad-viśeṣānāṁ aneko’samyutaḥ sadā
paramāṇuḥ sa vijñeyo nṛṇām aikya-bhramo yataḥ
sata eva padārthasya svarūpāvasthitasya yat
kaivalyaṁ parama-mahan na viśeṣo nirantaraḥ

Atoms, which are innumerable and uncombined, should be understood to be the smallest particle amongst the material elements. Men make a mistake concerning the exclusivity of the atom. When they remain in their own inherent condition before cosmic dissolution, the totality of all the atoms that exist separately is a state of vast oneness called parama-mahān, which is devoid of distinct qualities and different particles. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 3.11.1-2)

It is established in these two ślokas that apart from the material distress, no other inherent characteristic can be determined within the material nature of māyā. However, only the smallest divisional parts of material nature, as well as its state of oneness (ie. the qualities in its present state) can be referred to as its minuteness and its vastness. Yet, the logician’s delusion of the atom’s exclusivity – in other words, what is derived from that fundamental error, is futile. Material nature possesses qualities. It has many qualities, among which are the subtle qualities of vistṛti (expansion) and ākṛti (form) which, up to a fundamental level, are conceptualised as minuteness and vastness.

In reality, all the attributes of material objects are perceivable. All these qualities have recently been discovered through scientific research. Their eternal qualities are expansion, form, resistance to motion, impermanence, inertia, and attraction. Their occasional qualities are density, inflexibility, elasticity, brittleness, impact resistant, malleability, resistant to corrosion, heat resistant, stress resistant, extensibility, stickiness etc. The inquiry has no end, therefore there is a possibility of discovering other qualities in future. Therefore, Śrī Bhāgavata states:

māyāṁ madīyām udgṛhya vadatāṁ kiṁ nu durghaṭam

Is it so difficult for those quibblers who have taken refuge in My māyā potency to argue? (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 11.22.4)

The word parāvara is made up of of para and avara, meaning ‘superior and the inferior’, or ‘small and the large.’ All activities seen in this world are merely the transformations of māyā. Diversity in all actions is observed through the combination and subtraction of qualities, as well as through their succession and inversion. Scholars who study material substances explain the transformations of all these qualities, thus there is no need for further elaboration on the subject here.

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

nanu tādṛśī śaktiḥ svayam eva svatantratayā jagat kartrī bhavatu kiṁ parāpekṣayety ata āha.

However, this suggests that such a potency itself exists independently as the creator of the world. Why is it dependent on something else? Therefore, the following is said.

SŪTRA 22

jaḍatvāt kṛti-śūnyā cetana-preritā bhavati sajñāvavat

(Due to being inert, it is devoid of activity and becomes motivated by consciousness, as though it were conscious.)

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

ataeva cetana-bhinnatvena jaḍatvāt kṛti-śūnyā kiñcid api kartum ayogyā, kintu cetanena preritā pravartitā sati agnuttapta sañjāvavat ceṣṭate jagat-kartṛ bhavatitārthaḥ ‘mayādhyakṣeṇa prakṛtiḥ sūyate sa-carācaram’ iti śrī-bhagavad-vacanāt.

Therefore, due to being distinct from consciousness and because of its inertness, it is incapable of doing anything at all. However, when motivated by consciousness, it becomes activated. Just as when iron is heated it becomes like fire, similarly, the māyā potency acts as though it possesses the ability to create the world. Thus, Śrī Bhagavān says, ‘Under My command, material nature produces the universe with all its moving and non-moving beings.’

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

Being inert, a substance which is devoid of consciousness cannot make an effort on its own; but when agitated by consciousness, it acts.

It may be said, “According to the laws of the seasons, water vapor rises from the sea, is carried by the air in the form of clouds, and when heat is present, it falls again as rain. And we can observe that due to a combination of sulphur, iron etc, mountains are broken, there are earthquakes, and there are bullets that come from guns which accomplish great deeds. Where is the inspiration of consciousness in all these activities? The cause of all motion is fire, in other words, heat. Let heat be referred to as the motivator – is there any need to add consciousness as the inspiration?”

Although heat is observed to be the cause of all motion, nothing can occur without the inspiration of consciousness. What is heat? Upon specific analysis, heat can be referred to as a quality. When any particular tendency occurs within the mind, then heat manifests in the body. It is well-known that an excess of passion manifests as fever and bodily heat. The heat perceived in all kinds of natural substances can only be regarded as the result of the actions of a conscious thing. When all the material elements of the earth had not yet been created, there was a state of equilibrium within nature; but when the Lord’s transcendental vīrya*(4) was cast into it, the qualities of material nature, representing potential energy, became agitated and creation occurred. Thus, the śruti states:

sa aikṣata imāl lokān asṛjata

He glanced and created the worlds. (Aitareya Upaniṣad 1.1.1)

*(4) The Sanskrit word vīrya means semen. In this case, the vīrya of the Supreme bears no comparison to the gross bodily fluid of a male of this world. The vīrya of the Puruṣa is comprised of the conscious jīvas and is projected into material nature merely by His glance.

Similarly, the conscious existence of the Supreme Being is present within the physical bodies of the living entities, as stated in the Gītā:

ahaṁ vaiśvānaro bhūtvā prāṇināṁ deham āśritaḥ
prāpana-samayuktaḥ pacāmy annaṁ catur-vidham

I am the fire of digestion that resides in all beings, and I unite with the incoming and outgoing life-airs to digest all types of food. (Bhagavad-gītā 15.14)

Also, in the Third Canto of the Bhāgavata, Kapila says:

daivāt kṣubhita-dharmiṇyān svasyaṁ yonau paraḥ pumān
ādhatta vīryaṁ sāsūta mahat-tattvaṁ hiraṇmayam

The Supreme Person agitated the equilibrium of the modes of nature and impregnated the womb of material nature with His vīrya, and she gave birth to Mahat-tattva known as Hiraṇmaya. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 3.26.19)

It is the glance of Bhagavān that serves as the motivator of consciousness through which the dynamic power and activities of material nature arise. The word prakṛti (material nature) refers to the cosmic form of material nature in its unmanifest state. That body becomes a corpse when it is devoid of consciousness, and when motivated by consciousness, then it acts.

The creative potency that appears in that material nature due to the glance of the Supreme Being is present in the form of heat. Therefore, to acknowledge heat and deny the motivation of consciousness is simply self-deception. Merely a semblance of that glance, in the form of heat and attraction, regulates all movement and action in the solar system. After that, by His specific glance, He manifested the jīvātmās. Thus, the jīvātmās can manipulate material nature independently.

The formation of clouds and rainfall according to the movements of the seasons, the erosion of mountains and earthquakes due to the amalgamation of water with metals like iron etc, and the increase and decrease of water according to the phases of the moon — all of these must be acknowledged as laws resulting from the glance of Bhagavān. Attraction or heat can never be an inherent quality in and of itself. Consciousness itself is the inherent creator, and attraction etc. are merely laws. Therefore, it is illogical to acknowledge the laws while denying a creator. Although attraction and heat possess the capacity of being operatives, the inspiration of consciousness is an absolute necessity to regulate them both, because neither of them can exert any independent effort (supporting evidence for this can be found in mantras 14 to 28 of the Talavakāra Upaniṣad of the Sāma Veda).

There are many differences between independent effort and those activities that are guided. It is one’s duty to analyse that. Any substance connected to fire will be burned and become weak, but fire cannot perform any independent action other than its regulated function. The independent efforts found in that which is conscious are not the same. Even the most minimal manifestation of consciousness can be seen in insects who can focus on one task while performing another activity. Upon specific analysis, it is understood that the intrinsic nature of material substances is inertia. Just as the intrinsic nature of consciousness is transcendental bliss (cidānanda), similarly, the intrinsic nature of material substances could be described as the misery of inertia. Just as bliss is the intrinsic nature of consciousness, so the opposite of bliss, suffering, is the intrinsic nature of matter. Modern philosophers have referred to inertia as a mere quality of material nature, however it seems that after further deliberation in relation to Naturalism, they will explain that inertia is its intrinsic nature. All qualities are simply functions of an intrinsic nature. All such qualities as shape, attraction, stability etc –can be classified into categories, but inertia is deduced to be its intrinsic nature.

Therefore, it has been accepted in this sūtra that the inertia associated with material nature is devoid of any inherent qualities. Material nature cannot do anything if it is not motivated by consciousness. Therefore, the word bhavati (‘it becomes’) is seen in the sūtra. In this case, the term sajñāvavat (‘as though it were conscious’) is certainly confirmed.

One particular point of Sāṅkhya philosophy is to be considered here. Sāṅkhya states that material nature is the actual doer, while the Puruṣa remains unaffected:

prakṛtiḥ kartrī puruṣas tu puṣkara-palāśa-van-nirlepaḥ

Material nature is the doer. The Puruṣa remains remote, like a lotus leaf untouched by water. (Nyāya Siddhānta Muktāvalī 49)

Although ordinary Sāṅkhya philosophers claim that material nature is the actual doer, it is not so according to the opinion of Kapiladeva, as He states in the Third Canto of the Bhāgavata:

prakṛter guṇa-samyasya nirviśeṣasya mānavī
ceṣṭā yataḥ sa bhagavān kāla ity upalakṣitaḥ

O daughter of Manu! Bhagavān, in the form of time, is thus described as He who agitates material nature when it is in a state of equilibrium and devoid of distinctions. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 3.26.17)

It is not that the Sāṅkhya philosophers simply create their own concocted interpretations from the top of their heads. The doership of material nature is also explained in many Purāṇas and Tantras, as is seen in this statement about material nature by Brahmā from the Caṇḍi Māhātmya of the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa:

tvayaiva dhāryate sarvaṁ tvayaitat sṛjyate jagat
tvayaitat pālyate devi tvām atsyante ca sarvadā

Everything is sustained by you alone. The universe is created by you and it is nurtured by you, O Goddess, and at the time of universal annihilation, everything enters into you. (Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa 81.56)

There are many statements like kind through which persons who are short-sighted specifically declare material nature to be the doer. The real meaning of examples indicating the doership of material nature, such as the destruction of Mahiṣāsura, the slaying of Chaṇḍa and Muṇḍa, the killing of Śumbha and Niśumbha etc. are interpreted by scholars in the following way – an unconscious substance, through which any action may be accomplished, can be explained in terms of feminine or masculine gender. Just as the descriptions of Gaṅgā water as purifying, Calcutta as joyful, Kali as the destroyer of dharma, poison as life-threatening, and knowledge as a source of prosperity are only metaphorical indicators of their qualities – so too should the doership of material nature be understood.

If someone says, “We refer to material nature as caitanya-rūpiṇī (the embodiment of consciousness),” then in response we will say thus, “If we designate the conscious aspect of the Lord as prakṛti and refer to inanimate matter as puruṣa, it may not necessarily contradict the aforementioned philosophical conclusions of Sāṅkhya – however, it can lead to faults in relation to the science of terminology. All such names have not been established as eternal. In this world, human beings give names to objects according to their own particular feelings. In the process of assigning names, a tendency towards comparison is seen. When the word śṛṅga is given to a mountain peak, then some comparison is made to a cow’s horns (śṛṅga). In this way, new substances are named by using similes derived from an original object. When determining the tattva of the two substances which are conscious and non-conscious, we refer to that which is conscious as puruṣa and that which is non-conscious as prakṛti. In the material world, in relation to creation, the union between male and female is observed. Similarly, when the union between that which is conscious and that which is non-conscious is perceived in the act of creation, the independent controller consciousness is referred to as puruṣa and the dependent potential energy as prakṛti. Therefore, in all ancient scriptures, in other words, in the Vedas, the Koran, Bible etc, consciousness is referred to in the masculine gender. Only a few logicians, with the intention of disturbing the bhakti-śāstras, create disputes and confusion in philosophical texts by referring to material nature as caitanya-rūpiṇī (the embodiment of consciousness). As a result, they also acknowledge material substances as being dependent on consciousness, because inertness itself is indifferent and detached like a lotus leaf and water. Action itself is the inherent nature of consciousness. Therefore, there is no benefit in exchanging the names puruṣa and prakṛti (male and female),

The next sūtra determines what is the relationship between the bound jīva with the māyā potency.

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

māyā-śakteś cetanānāṁ bandha-rūpatvaṁ darśayati

This shows the condition of the conscious being’s subjugation in relation to the māyā-śakti.

SŪTRA 23

sā parānanuraktānāṁ kārāvad dehādi-bandhana-rūpā

(For those who have no attachment to the Supreme, material nature is like a prison where one is bound by the physical body etc.)

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

sā prakṛtiḥ, pare parameśvare ananuraktānāṁ anurāga-śūnyānāṁ svatantra svabhāvāt tat-kṛtājñā-laṅghana-parāṇāṁ dehādi-bandhana-rūpā bhavati. ‘Ye ca manye prapadyante śarīratvāya dehinaḥ sthāṇum anye’nusaṁyānti yathā-karma yathā-śrutam’ iti śruteḥ.

Those who are not attracted to the Supreme Lord, who are devoid of any attachment to Him, and due to their independence, violate His orders, are subjugated by that material nature by being bound to a physical body etc. The śruti says, ‘Those who think in this way attain new material bodies. Others enter inanimate forms according to their activities and their knowledge.’ (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 2.2.7)*(5)

*(5) Most versions of this verse from Kaṭha Upaniṣad begin with yonim anye prapadyante, rather than ye ca manye prapadyante.

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

That inert matter is the intrinsic nature of the bodies possessed by the bound jīvas. The jīva is a substance which is cidānanda (transcendental bliss), therefore they have no necessity for a material body. However, deviating from their inherent nature of attachment to the Supreme, the jīvas become averse to the Lord and are confined to a physical form. The body itself is a prison for the jīva. The ātmā is not a restricted substance, but when connected to the material body, the jīvas experience inertia and suffering which is the intrinsic nature of material nature. Therefore, the Kaṭha Upaniṣad says:

puram ekādaśa-dvāraṁ ajasyāvakra-cetasaḥ

One should realise that the city of eleven gates is controlled by He who is unborn. (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 2.2.1)

And also we find in the Gītā:

sattvaṁ rajas tama iti guṇaḥ prakṛti-sambhavaḥ
nibadhnanti mahā-bāho dehe dehinam avyayam

Goodness, passion and ignorance are the modes born of material nature. These modes bind the immutable individual being to the material body, O mighty-armed hero. (Bhagavad-gītā 14.5)

It should be considered which part of the body and existence of the bound jīva is the jīva itself, and which part is the prison of the jīva. There are many miseries for the jīva due to the disease of identifying with the body. It is only due to this state of disease that they sometimes experience repeated subjugation and suffering by forgetting the Supreme Truth. Due to high birth, discrimination, and conceptions of superiority and inferiority which constantly remain awake in the minds of all such persons, it is extremely difficult for them to achieve any spiritual benefit. Therefore, it is stated in the Gītā:

vidyā-vinaya-sampanne brāhmaṇe gavi hastini
śuni caiva śvapāke ca paṇḍitāḥ sama-darśinaḥ

A wise man sees a learned and humble brāhmaṇa, a cow, an elephant, a dog, a lowborn person and all other living beings as equal. (Bhagavad-gītā 5.18)

Those who are proud of their scholarship, not being aware of the fundamental meaning of varṇāśrama-dharma, inappropriately apply all such regulations upon persons who possess knowledge and bhakti, and incur spiritual harm to themselves. In reality, while following the regulations of varṇāśrama, wise persons become equal to all (sama-darśī) and relax the rigidity of those injunctions for the sake of knowledge and bhakti. Without analysing eligibility and non-eligibility, one will never gain a deep insight into such injunctions. The human body is simply a prison, and it possesses an temporary relationship with the ātmā. Therefore, as long as one must remain here, a human should consider himself to be lower than grass. When this body becomes merged into the five elements, the substance that remains is this:

asya visraṁsamānasya śarīra-sthasya dehinaḥ
dehād vimucyamānasya kim atra pariśiṣyate etad vai tat

(Naciketa asked:) When the embodied jīva gives up the material body, and is freed from the bodily condition, what is it that remains? (Yama replied:) It is this. (Katha Upaniṣad 2.2.4)

Therefore, that which collapses along with the body is inert matter, which had been a form of imprisonment for the jīvātmā for the purpose of his purification. The ancient saying is that the five elements of earth, water, fire, air, and space make up the body. Even if, through physics, these five elements are condensed into four, still, the ātmā and the material body will remain distinct. Apart from jaḍa-tattva (the reality of matter), it is one’s duty to investigate ātmā–tattva (the reality of the ātmā). Without properly exploring which substances are implied by the term ‘matter’ and what their various qualities are, no one is capable of clearly understanding conscious substances. For this reason, texts on material science should be respected, and the pioneers of that science should be rewarded. Therefore, in the Third Canto of the Bhāgavata, Kapiladeva states:

atha te sampravakṣyāmi tattvānāṁ lakṣaṇaṁ pṛthak
yad viditvā vimucyeta puruṣaḥ prakṛtir guṇaiḥ

Now I will describe unto you the characteristics of the various tattvas one by one, knowing which, one can be delivered from the modes of material nature. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 3. 26.1)

A jīva becomes bound to the material body and will be subjected to the anarthas of disease, sorrow, illusion, desire, anger etc. Those who consider the temporary pleasures of the senses to be important are extremely foolish. In reality, their suffering is mistaken to be happiness. What happiness can there be in matter for the ātmā, who is the embodiment of consciousness and bliss? While they are slaves to the material body, all jīvas are deprived of the inherent nature of the complete spiritual bliss of Bhagavān’s feet – they quarrel with one another over trivial sense-pleasures and thus fall into a lower condition. By declaring that this world is a place of enjoyment, we will never arrive at any conclusion. Thus, the world, in the form of the body etc, is simply a prison for the jīva. The true abode of the jīva is to be sought elsewhere. In this state of subjugation, our analytical faculties are confined by the constraints of space and time, the modes of nature, and the material elements – thus our inherent nature does not arise in our minds in any way. Only through ātma–pratyaya (the experience of the ātmā) is its existence perceived to a certain extent. That is called their abode, or their eternal state. When the jīva falls from his pure state and remains bound in this material world, he continues to reform himself in order to advance again. Some wise persons explain that the material coverings are divided into several parts, and that the jīva consists of five sheaths. The annamaya-kośa (the state of nutrition), the prāṇamaya-kośa (the state of vitality) and the manomaya–kośa (the mental state) – these are the gross, physical coverings. The vijñānamaya-kośa (the state of reasoning) and the ānandamaya–kośa (the state of bliss) – these two are said to be the subtle coverings. On further deliberation, it is deduced that those whose attachment to the Supreme Lord is diminished are the ones that have fallen from their own state and are bound in a prison in the form of the material body etc. In this sūtra, the term ādi refers to all material coverings.*(6)

*(6) Here, the word ādi means ‘and others.’ Apart from the body, this refers to the other gross and subtle coverings of the jīvātmā.

SŪTRA 24

anādir anantā ca parameśvara-śaktitvāt

(Being the potency of the Supreme Lord, it is without beginning and is unlimited.)

 

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

sā prakṛtir anantā ca parameśvarasya śakti-viśeṣatvāt. prakṛtiṁ puruṣañcaiva viddhy-anādī ubhāvapīti smṛteḥ.

That material nature is unlimited and is a specific attribute of the Supreme Lord’s potency. Know that both material nature (prakṛti) and the Supreme (puruṣa) are without beginning, as stated in the smṛti.

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

Ignorance is produced from the primeval potency of the Supreme Lord, therefore, due to their causal properties, a non-conscious substance can also be referred to as being without beginning and eternal, just like the jīvas. However, it’s reality cannot be compared to the eternal reality of the Supreme Lord, since its reality depends upon His independent will. This concept is established through many śrutis such as, yato vā imāni bhūtāni etc.*(7)

*(7) ‘All beings emanate from Him’ (Taittīriya Upaniṣad 3.1)

It is also said in the first śloka of the first chapter in the First Canto of the Śrīmad Bhāgavata:

janmādy asya yato’nvayād itarataś cārtheṣv abhijñaḥ svarāṭ
tene brahma hṛdā ya ādi-kavaye muhyanti yat sūrayaḥ
tejo-vāri-mṛdāṁ yathā vinimayo yatra tri-sargo’mṛṣā
dhāmnā svena sadā nirasta-kuhakaṁ satyaṁ paraṁ dhīmahi

Let us meditate upon the Supreme Truth, who is both the direct and indirect cause of creation, maintenance and universal annihilation. He who is cognisant of all things and is fully independent, revealed the Vedas to Brahmā, the original creator, within his heart. Learned scholars are bewildered by Him just as one is bewildered by the transformations of water, fire and earth. Whatever He manifests through the three modes of material nature is real. He is eternally present in His abode which is free from all illusion.

Many scientific scholars classify time as an eternal substance. Thus, it will be explained in following sūtra.

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

tasyā anādy-anantāyā api aupādhikiṁ deśa-kālāvasthāṁ nirūpayati sūtra-dvayena

The following two sūtras explain that although material nature is without beginning and is unlimited, it is limited according to place and time.

SŪTRA 25

kālo nārthāntaraṁ baddhānāṁ prakṛti-sambandha-rūpatvāt

(Time is not a separate substance because by nature, it merely connects those that are bound with material nature.)

 

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

kālasya pṛthak-padārthatvaṁ kecin manyante, yathā prakṛteḥ kāla-rūpatve pramāṇaṁ mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa-vacanaṁ ‘kalā-kāṣṭhādi-rūpeṇa pariṇāma-pradāyinī.’ tan-mataṁ nirākaroti kālo-nāma na padārtha-viśeṣaḥ, kintu sambandha-mātram.

Some consider time to be a separate substance, and that time is a form of material nature according to evidence found in a statement of the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa – ‘You appear in the form of minutes, moments etc, and are the bestower of various chronological transformations’ (Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa 91.8). This opinion is rejected – time itself is not a separate substance, but merely a connective.

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

The trend of scientific textbooks is to arrange many things into a single group according to their general characteristics, thereby reducing the number of categories. Increasing the number of useless substances can never be logical. Therefore, the author of the sūtras has accepted these two substances – conscious and non-conscious – and has included all other categories of substances within them. Śāṇḍilya Ṛṣi also only accepts these two sunstances:

cid-acitor na tṛtīyam

There is only that which is conscious and that which is non-conscious – there is no third principle. (Śāṇḍilya Sūtras 2.1.14)

The followers of Nyāya accept many eternal substances, among which, according to them, time is also eternal. However, upon specific analysis, time can be said to be a material substance because it is unconscious. In various places, time is referred to as the influence of Bhagavān, as in the Third Canto of the Śrīmad Bhāgavata, where it is stated by Kapila:

prabhāvaṁ pauruṣaṁ prāhuḥ kālam eke yato bhayam
ahaṅkara-vimūḍhasya kartuṁ prakṛtim īyuṣaḥ

It is said by some that time is the influence of the Supreme Puruṣa. It gives rise to fear in the doer, having come in connection with material nature, and being deluded by false ego. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 3.26.16)

All those persons who take refuge in material nature and identify with the body, fear Bhagavān’s influence in the form of time. It is clear here that time is a specific attribute according to the relationship of the puruṣa with prakṛti. It manifests due to the relationship of the bound jīva with material nature. Without the presence of the jīva, material nature is lifeless; it can make no effort on its own. Furthermore, if there are no jīvas, who would be there to perceive the existence of material nature? Although material nature is eternal, it would remain meaningless. Thus, time is the awareness of the existence of material nature through its connection with consciousness. For bound jīvas, the beginning and end of time cannot be defined because their perception is subject to time. It is difficult for us to determine whether there is any relation with time for a jīva in the eternally liberated state. Short-sighted persons think, “Everything is subject to time.” In this way, they conclude that even the existence of the Supreme is subject to time. However, in this regard, the conclusion of that faith which is self-evident is that the Supreme Lord is never subject to time, because the one who is the creator of all laws can never be under any law. Even if time itself is said to be His power, still, its must be subject to Him. However, the feeling of existence is never perceived as being independent of time. Thus, one may either deny the existence of the Supreme or accept some form of independent existence of time. We accept the latter conclusion because it is also supported by reason. Therefore, the existence of the Supreme is not subject to time – this must be acknowledged. Ordinary mundane substances exist, and are mutually assisted by time. However, the Supreme Lord is a supramundane Entity, thus He is not subject to ordinary laws. Even in the liberated condition of the jīvā, material time cannot be acknowledged. Only in the state of subjugation does birth, death, existence, and action seem to be under the influence of time.*(8) Thus, the bound jīva’s relationship with material nature can be said to be prakṛta-kāla (material time).

*(8) In this sentence, Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura uses the words saṁyoga and viyoga (which generally mean union and separation) for birth and death. In this regard, saṁyoga means ‘contact’ – in other words, coming in connection with a material body. Viyoga means ‘to separate,’ or to be separated from the material body.

In addition to the analysis of time, the analysis of space (deśa) is also necessary; therefore, there is the following sūtrā.

SŪTRA 26

saivādhiṣṭhāna-rūpiṇī deśa-saṁjñitā

(Indeed, the form of material nature is the abode and is termed as space.)

 

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

saiva prakṛtir jīvānām adhiṣṭhāna-bhūtā ādhāra-rūpiṇī deśa-saṁjñitā bhavati. ‘samāne vṛkṣe puruṣo nimagno’nīśayā śocati muhyamānam’ iti śruteḥ. vṛkṣo’tra prakṛti-maya ādhāraḥ.

Indeed, space is defined as that form of material nature which is the abode of the material elements and the support of the jīvas. The śruti says, ‘Situated within that tree, the enjoyer who is powerless, falls under the influence of lamentation and bewilderment’ (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 3.1). Here, the tree is the support made up of material nature.

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

In regards to this ‘space’, experts in the six philosophies engage in much debate over various differences in terminology. Some refer to it as accommodating space (akāśa), some as the directions (dik), and some merely as the void (śūnya) – in this way, they express the same substance in different ways with these various names. In reality, the common definition for everyone is deśa (space). Space is the ādhāra (support). That space has but one quality – that is, the expanse by which material substances are contained. Many refer to the earth as the support, citing the Vedas as proof of this.

etasmāj jāyate prāṇo manaḥ sarvendriyāṇi ca
khaṁ vāyur jyotir āpaḥ pṛthivī viśvasya dhāriṇī

From Him are born the life airs, the mind, all the senses, ether, air, fire, water and soil which are supported by the earth. (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 2.1.3)

By taking the literal meaning of the Vedic texts, the earth is certainly the support. However, the sampradāya of those devotees that are sāragrāhīs (seekers of that which is essential) is devoted to accepting the inner meaning of the Vedas. The method of analysis is this. It has been stated in the previous mantra as follows:

divyo hy amūrtaḥ puruṣaḥ sa bāhyābhyantaro hy ajaḥ
aprāṇo hy amanaḥ śubhro hy akṣarāt parataḥ paraḥ

Indeed, that Divinity is a personality without form. He is inside and outside, is unborn, devoid of life airs, without a mind, effulgent, and beyond the eternal material nature. (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 2.1.2)

That reality is independent of the external substance of material nature. However, regarding the bound jīvas, several subtle substances are observed – namely the life airs, the mind, and all the senses. They also arise from that, in other words, they are created from His beginningless divine potency. Again, māyā in the form of ignorance, that is, inert matter, has also been created. In other words, the components of matter, such as ether, air etc, have gradually manifested to become the gross support known as earth. However, the initial manifestation of inert matter is ākāśa which is the support for all material substances. By analysing this with logic, it becomes obvious. Earth itself occupies a portion of ākāśa; therefore, ākāśa is simply space. Space cannot be simply referred to as a direction, because the ākāśa on all four sides of the examiner is what constitutes a direction. Yet according to this, the place where the examiner himself stands will be rejected. Thus, when the word ‘space’ is used, it will not possess the shortcomings associated by using other terms. Material nature is certainly the support – evidence in the smṛti is seen in the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa in the prayers of the Devas to Goddess Caṇḍī as follows:

ādhāra-bhūtā jagatas tvam ekā

You are the sole support of the universe. (Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa 91.3)

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

tayā baddhānāṁ cetanām api bhrama-bāhulyaṁ darśayati

The immense confusion of the conscious beings that are bound will be seen.

SŪTRA 27

jaḍe baddhasyānanda-bhramo vaikuṇṭha-bhramaś cāsaṅgāt

(Due to attachment, those bound by matter are bewildered about the nature of happiness and bewildered about Vaikuṇṭha.)

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

baddha-jīvānāṁ jaḍa-padārthe dehādau svarge ca ānanda sukham iti buddhir-bhrama eva āsaṅgāt āsaktir heto bhavati. jaḍe prākṛta-vastu-viṣaye bhagaval-loke iti śrī-bhagavān iti bhramo’pi āsaṅgāt bhavati. tathārhi ‘rajo’dhikā karma-parā duḥkhe ca sukha-māninaḥ’ iti śrī-bhagavad-uktiḥ

For the bound jīvas, the belief that bliss and happiness reside in material substances, the physical body, or even in Svarga is simply a mental delusion that arises from attachment. To think that material objects are connected to Bhagavān’s abode or to Śrī Bhagavān Himself is also a delusion born from attachment. Therefore Śrī Bhagavān says, ‘Those humans, within whom the mode of passion is predominant, engage in karma, and consider themselves to be happy even in the midst of distress.’(Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 3.10.26)

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

In their bound state, two types of delusion arise for the jīva in relation to material substances: namely, the delusion of bliss (ānanda-bhrama) and the delusion concerning Vaikuṇṭha (vaikuṇṭha-bhrama). The misconception that the pleasures of the senses are happiness is called ānanda-bhrama. This ānanda-bhrama is also twofold, in other words, the delusion of bliss derived from observation (dṛṣṭānanda-bhrama) and the delusion of bliss derived from hearing (śrutānanda-bhrama). Enjoyment derived from the objects of all the senses, such as the eyes, ears, nose etc, can be called visual bliss (dṛṣṭānanda), and enjoyment obtained in the next life through the performance of good deeds, such as receiving a celestial form and experiencing pleasures with the Apsaras, is called auditory bliss (śrutānanda). It is said in the Kaṭha Upaniṣad:

svarge loke na bhayaṁ kiñcanāsti
na tatra tvaṁ na jarayā bibheti
ubhe tīrtvā aśanāyāpipāse
śokātigo modate svarga-loke

(Naciketā said:) There is no fear whatsoever in Svarga-loka. You, O Death, are not present there and thus no one is afraid of old age. Being free from hunger and thirst and transcending all sorrow, one finds pleasure in Svarga-loka. (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.1.12)

All the śrutis that propagate such karma give humans the hope of receiving the results of their actions, such as enjoying the pleasures of Svarga etc, and sometimes promise that all these deeds will increase sense-enjoyment even in this life. However, all of these are simply temptations. There is no real bliss in all these pleasures, so for those jīvas who think there is happiness in them, it is merely a delusion. Pleasures such as sexual union with women, eating, massaging, applying fragrant oils, and enjoying aromatic scents are all extremely temporary. Only suffering arises from enjoyment. The characters of drunkards and men who go to prostitutes are the best example of this. What eternal happiness is there in the celestial gardens of Nandana-kānana, the dance of Menakā, the pleasures of Urvaśī, or in drinking nectar?*(9) All of these are simply the imaginary excellence of sense-pleasure. Thus, in the Kaṭha Upaniṣad, Naciketā says:

śvo’bhāvā mārtyasya yad antakaitat
sarvendriyāṇāṁ jarayanti tejaḥ
api sarvaṁ jīvitam alpam eva
tavaiva bāhās tava nṛtya-gīte

O Death, all these things are temporary and they wear out a man’s senses. Even the longest duration of life is brief. Let your vehicles, dancers and singers remain with you. (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.1.26)

*(9) Nandana-kānana is the famous pleasure garden of Indra in Svargaloka. Menaka and Urvaśī are celestial damsels who were so beautiful that they made the great sage Viśvamitra fall from his vow of celibacy.

Again, it is stated in the Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad:

parīkṣya lokān karma-citān brāhmaṇo
nirveda-māyān nāsty akṛtaḥ kṛtena
tad-vijñānārthaṁ gurum evābhigacchet
samit-pāṇiḥ śrotrīyaṁ brahma-niṣṭham

Having examined the realms that are formed by karma, a brāhmaṇa becomes indifferent to them. One does not attain freedom from karma through acts of karma. In order to achieve realised knowledge, one should approach a guru who is learned in the śruti and established in the Absolute, with fuel for the sacrificial fire in hand. (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 1.2.10)

iṣṭā-pūrtaṁ manyamānā variṣṭhaṁ
nānyac chreyo vedayante pramūḍhāḥ
nākasya pṛṣṭhe sukṛte’nubhūtvā
imaṁ lokaṁ hīnataraṁ vā viśanti

Fools that consider sacrifices and charity to be most excellent, do not know any higher good. Having enjoyed their results of their piety in the celestial world, they again enter this world, or enter an even lower one. (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 1.2.10)

The happiness derived from bhakti is the only natural bliss for a jīva. The pleasure experienced through association with material nature is unnatural and only a source of delusion and suffering. This misfortune has arisen due to saṅga-doṣa (the defect of association). The jīva is intrinsically consciousness and bliss, therefore association with material nature – in other words, that which is inert – leads to his forgetting his inherent nature and gives rise to the inclination to seek happiness in a secondary reality. This tendency leads to the gradual downfall of the jīva. Therefore, in the second chapter of the Gītā, it is stated:

dhyāyate viṣayān puṁsaḥ saṅgas teṣūpajāyate
saṅgāt sañjāyate kāmaḥ kāmāt krodho’bhijāyate
krodhād bhavati saṁmohaḥ saṁmohāt smṛti-vibhramaḥ
smṛti-bhraṁśād buddhi-nāśo buddhi-nāśāt praṇaśyati

By meditating upon sense-objects, one becomes attached to them. From attachment desire appears and from desire anger manifests. Delusion manifests from anger. Delusion causes bewilderment of memory. Bewilderment of memory causes loss of intelligence and when intelligence is lost, one is destroyed. (Bhagavad-gītā 2.62-63)

Śrīmad Śaṅkarācārya has written in his commentary on this śloka:

sarvānarthasya mūlamuktaṁ viśayābhidhyānaṁ

Contemplating the sense-objects is the source of all misfortune.

Due to the defect of associating with material nature and contemplating material sense-objects, the jīva completely forgets his true intrinsic nature, which is inherently blissful, as well as the nature of the Supreme and Vaikuṇṭha. Thus, there is bewilderment in considering sense-pleasure and the pleasures of Svarga to be actual bliss, and this leads to misconceptions concerning Śrī Bhagavān and His abode. Vaikuṇṭha is perceived as a mundane place, and Bhagavān’s form is mistaken to be a body comprised of matter. Thus, in the Gītā, Bhagavān says:

janma karma ca me divyaṁ evaṁ yo vetti tattvataḥ
tyaktvā dehaṁ punar janma naiti mām eti so’rjuna

One who understands My divine appearance and activities never takes birth again after giving up this material body. He comes to Me, O Arjuna. (Bhagavad-gītā 4.9)

In Śrī Caitanya-caritāmṛta, the Lord states:

prākṛta kariyā māne viṣṇu-kalevara
viṣṇu-nindā āra nāhi ihāra upara

One who accepts the form of Viṣṇu to be material makes an offence to Him and there is nothing worse than this. (Caitanya-caritāmṛta, Ādi-līlā 7.115)

In the inverted banyan tree of this material world,*(10) one’s eternal intelligence is gradually bewildered – in other words, one perceives Vaikuṇṭha to be an imaginary place filled with soil and water. However, this is dispelled by discrimination. Thus, in Chapter Fifteen of the Gītā it is said:

aśvattham enaṁ suvirūḍha-mūlaṁ
asaṅga-śastreṇa dṛḍhena chittvā
tataḥ padaṁ tat parimārgitavyaṁ
yasmin gatā na nivartanti bhūyaḥ

One must cut down this strong-rooted banyan tree with the weapon of detachment and search out that place from which, once having gone, one never returns. (Bhagavad-gītā 15.3-4)

*(10) In the Fifteenth Chapter of Bhagavad-gītā, Kṛṣṇa compares the material world to an inverted banyan tree in order to show how it is an inverted reflection of the spiritual world.

This material delusion is extremely harmful. Therefore, the author of the sūtras prescribes the remedy for this severe disease.

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

idānīm ukta-bhrama-nivṛtti-sādhanaṁ darśayati

Now the means for the removal of the aforementioned delusion will be seen.

SŪTRA 28

vivekena tato vimuktiḥ

(Freedom arises from discernment)

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

tataḥ pūrvoktād ubhaya-vidha bhramāj-jīvānāṁ vimuktir vivekāt jīvātma-paramātmanos tattva-vicārāt bhavati. tathā ca śrutiḥ – ‘ātmānaṁ ced vijānīyād ayam asmīti puruṣaḥ. kim icchan kasya kāmāya śarīram-anusajjeta.’ ‘bhidyate hṛdaya-granthiś chidyante sarva-saṁśayāḥ. kṣīyante cāsya karmāṇi tasmin dṛṣṭe parāvare.’

From that which was previously stated, the liberation of the bewildered jīvas occurs through discernment, arising from inquiry into the truth about the jīvātmā and the Paramātmā. And thus, it is confirmed by the śruti – ‘If one understands the self as ‘I am this,’ then what does one desire, and for whose sake does one become attached to the body?’ (Bṛhad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.4.12). ‘The knot within the heart is severed and all doubts are removed along with all karma Upon perceiving the Lord within all superior and inferior things.’ (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 3.2.11)

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

The two aforementioned delusions, namely the ānanda-bhrama and vaikuṇṭha-bhrama, are removed only by discernment. It has been stated in the previous sūtra that these two delusions are material objects as well as the results of yajñas, which Naciketā refused. Now the process of discernment is described in the words of the Bhagavad–gītā:

śreyān dravyamayād yajñāj jñāna-yajñaḥ parantapa
sarvaṁ karmākhilaṁ pārtha jñāne parisamāpyate

O conqueror of the enemy, the sacrifice involving knowledge is higher than the sacrifice of material ingredients. All actions culminate in knowledge, O Pārtha. (Bhagavad–gītā 4.33)

The one who is qualified to possess that knowledge is determined:

śraddhāvāl labhate jñānaṁ tat-paraḥ saṁyatendriyaḥ
jñānaṁ labdhvā parāṁ śāntim acireṇādhigacchati

Those imbued with faith and who are devoted to controlling their senses attain this knowledge very swiftly. Thus they attain supreme peace. (Bhagavad–gītā 4.39)

Whatever the case may be, if the desire to eliminate delusion appears in a person, the inclination to seek the means for that is known as śraddhā.*(11) That śraddhā can also be called viśvāsa (faith, confidence). During the natural course of events, when some persons feel distaste towards anarthas (those things that are troublesome and unnecessary), then śraddhā arises in them.

*(11) The Sanskrit word śraddhā is generally translated as ‘faith’ or ‘belief’ in English. The etymology of ‘faith’ is the Latin word fidere (‘to trust’). The definition of śraddhā however is, śrat dadhāti iti śraddhāḥ (‘that which leads one to truth is śraddhā’).

Thus, the Gītā says:

aneka-citta-vibhrāntā moha-jala-samāvṛtāḥ
prasaktāḥ kāma-bhogeṣu patanti narake’sucau

The minds of the asuras are full of various bewildering thoughts and thus they are ensnared in a network of illusion. As they become absorbed in fulfilling their mundane desires, they descend into a foul abyss. (Bhagavad-gītā 16.16)

tri-vidhaṁ narakasyedaṁ dvāraṁ nāśanam ātmanaḥ
kāmaḥ krodhas tathā lobhas tasmād etat trayaṁ tyajet

There are three paths leading to the lower planets and self-destruction – lust, anger and greed. Thus, these three must be abandoned because they are the great destroyers of self-realisation. (Bhagavad-gītā 16.21)

catur-vidhā bhajante māṁ janāḥ sukṛtino’rjuna
arto jijñasur arthārthī jñānī ca bharatarṣabha

O descendant of Bharata, there are four kinds of persons who are fortunate enough to worship Me – those who are in distress, the inquisitive, those that seek wealth and those that desire self-realisation. (Bhagavad-gītā 7.16)

Also, in the First Canto of the Bhāgavata, Kuntī says:

vipadaḥ santu tāḥ śaśvat tatra tatra jagad-guro
bhavato darśanam yat syād apunar bhava-darśanam

O universal guru! May we continually have dangers in such situations, because during that time we will see You, and by that we will gain liberation from this material world. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 1.8.25)

Through the association with sādhus, in other words, through the mercy of a sādhu, the emergence of this śraddhā occurs, as stated in the Second Chapter of the Second Rātrī of the Nārada Pañcarātra:

śrī-kṛṣṇa-bhakta-saṅgena bhaktir bhavati naiṣṭhikī
animittā ca sukhadā hari-dāsya-pradā śubhā
yathā vrkṣa-latānāṁ ca navīnaḥ komalaṅkuraḥ
vardhate megha-varṣeṇa śuṣkaḥ sūrya-kareṇa ca
tathaiva bhaktālāpena bhakti-vrkṣa-navāṅkuraḥ
vardhate śūṣkatāṁ yāti cābhaktālāpa-mātrataḥ

Through association with devotees of Kṛṣṇa, steady bhakti arises which is unmotivated and brings happiness, awarding the auspicious service of Hari. Just as the tender fresh shoots of trees and vines flourish from the rain poured on them by the clouds and are dried up by the rays of the sun, similarly, the new shoots of the tree of bhakti flourish with a little association of devotees, but wither away in the absence of such association. (Nārada Pañcarātra 2.2-4)

When śraddhā arises, the transmission of knowledge will occur in this way, as stated in the Gītā:

tad viddhi praṇipātena paripraśnena sevayā
upadekṣyanti te jñānaṁ jñāninas tattva-darśinaḥ

Just try to understand this knowledge by approaching a self-realised person who has seen the truth. Make submissive inquiry and render service unto him. The tattva-darśī, the seer of the truth, will instruct you and give you initiation into this sacred path. (Bhagavad-gītā 4.34)

Through such instructions, the nature of Bhagavān (bhagavad-tattva) and the nature of Bhagavān’s abode (bhagavad-dhāma-tattva) – in other words, one’s mundane conception of Vaikuṇṭha is removed. The Gītā states:

manuṣyāṇāṁ sahasreṣu kaścid yatati siddhaye
yatatām api siddhānāṁ kaścin māṁ vetti tattvataḥ

Amongst thousands of men, one may try to achieve perfection. Amongst those rare persons that endeavour for perfection, one may actually know Me. (Bhagavad-gītā 7.3)

When the transcendental nature of Bhagavān is realised through a critical analysis of reality with resolute intelligence, then surrender arises. The Gītā states:

bahūnāṁ janmanām ante jñānavān māṁ prapadyate
vāsudevaḥ sarvam iti sa mahātmā sudurlabhaḥ

After many births, one who possesses knowledge surrenders unto Me. He realises that Vāsudeva is the source of everything. Such a great personality is very rare. (Bhagavad-gītā 7.19)

What is determined by discernment, will be stated as follows.

SŪTRA 29

na ca prākṛta-vad-indriya grāhyatvaṁ vaikuṇṭhasyādhokṣajatvāt

(Also, unlike material objects, Vaikuṇṭha is not perceivable by the senses, due to its being beyond mundane sense perception.)

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

nanu vaikuṇṭhaṁ tad-adhiṣṭānaṁ draṣṭūṁ te munayogatā ityādau aneka devarṣi brahmarṣi prabhṛtīnāṁ vaikuṇṭha-loka gamanaṁ śrī-bhagavad-darśanaṁ punaḥ pratyāgamanādikaṁ varṇitam-asti. katham ucyate ajñāna janya. eṣa eva ity-āśaṅkāṁ. nirākartum una-triṁśat-sūtram ārabdhavān śrī-sutrakāraḥ na ceti. na ca prākṛta-ghaṭa-paṭādi-viṣayavat indriya-gocaratvaṁ vaikuṇṭhasya bhagaval-lokasya bhagavato vā bhavati, adhokṣajatvāt. tatra indriya-gocaratvena varṇitās tadvat vaikuṇṭhādayas tu māyā-kalpita-vaikuṇṭhaḥ, parā ‘vaikuṇṭha-kalpito yena loko loka-namaskṛtaṁ’ iti smaraṇāt. anyathā punaḥ pratyāgamanaṁ na syāt, syāc cet, ‘yad gatvā na nivartante tad dhāma paramaṁ mama, mām upetya tu kaunteya punar janma na vidyate’ iti śrī-mukhoktir apy anyathā syāt. ‘yato vāco nivartante’ iti śrutiś ca.

“But that abode of Vaikuṇṭha is perceptible. It is described that through the practice of yoga, many devarṣis, brahmarṣis etc. have gone to Vaikuṇṭha-loka and returned after taking darśana of Śrī Bhagavān. Are these statements made out of ignorance?” This is the doubt. To dispel this, the respected author of the sūtras, asserts in the twenty-ninth sūtra, “This is not so!”

Vaikuṇṭha, the abode of Bhagavān, does not become subject to sensory perception like material objects such as pots, cloth etc, due to it being adhokṣaja (beyond the reach of the material senses). Vaikuṇṭha and other spiritual abodes which are described as being perceptible to the mundane senses are indeed illusory Vaikuṇṭhas created by māyā. It should be remembered – ‘The Lord created another Vaikuṇṭha and people worship that realm.’(Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 8.5.5) Otherwise, if this were to happen, there would be no return – ‘Once attaining that abode, one never returns’ (Bhagavad-gītā 15.6), ‘Those great personalities who have attained Me never take birth again in this temporary world of misery’ (Bhagavad-gītā 8.15) – thus, the words of the Lord would also be contradicted. Also the śruti states, ‘Words cannot describe Him.’ (Taittīriya Upaniṣad 2.4.1)

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

The meaning of the word vaikuṇṭha is ‘free from constraint’, in other words, ‘devoid of material qualities.’ The qualities of material nature such as form, extension, etc., are obvious. All these qualities are associated with constraint (kuṇṭha). Amongst material substances, a quality known as sthiti-virodha (resistance to stability) has been discovered. Due to that quality, if one substance is not displaced, another substance cannot occupy its place. However, in the case of a Vaikuṇṭha-substance, the absence of that quality means that there is no resistance to any extension. Therefore, it is called Vaikuṇṭha. In this universe, the place described as Vaikuṇṭha that is described in many śāstras, where ṛṣis go from time to time, cannot actually be called Vaikuṇṭha since it mentions many material qualities there. However, since that abode is considered to be subtler than all sensory-perceptible substances, it is also referred to as sa-dhāma (‘His abode’).

tatra sattvaṁ nirmalatvāt prakāśa-kāmanāmayam

Amongst these modes, goodness is free from impurities. (Bhagavad-gītā 14.6)

This previously mentioned realm comprised of sattva-guṇa is said to be māyika-vaikuṇṭha. In addition to that, there is a special pure abode – information of which indicates that it is superior to all other realms. The evidence for this is thus:

vaikuṇṭha-kalpito yena loko loka-namaskṛtaṁ

The Lord created another Vaikuṇṭha and people worship that realm. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 8.5.5)

The concept of Vaikuṇṭha being ‘created’ does not align with that of māyika-vaikuṇṭha. However, since the name Vaikuṇṭha was previously attributed to it, then that state that embodies the mode of goodness has been connected to the term ‘Vaikuṇṭha.’ The transcendental abode of Vaikuṇṭha, which is realised through self-evident faith, has been explained to be nitya-vaikuṇṭha (eternal Vaikuṇṭha), or Goloka. Thus, in the Nārada Pañcarātra, Sadā-Śiva says:

goloko nitya-vaikuṇṭho yathākāśo yathā diśaḥ

Just as the sky and the directions are eternal, so too is Goloka, the eternal Vaikuṇṭha. (Nārada Pañcarātra 2.3.20)

In the Second Canto of the Śrīmad Bhāgavata, there is a description of Brahmā’s vision of Vaikuṇṭha:

tasmai sva-lokaṁ bhagavān sabhājitaḥ
sandarśayām āsa paraṁ na yat-padam
vyapeta-saṅklesa-vimoha-sādhvasaṁ
sva-dṛṣṭavādbhiḥ puruṣair abhiṣṭutam

Being satisfied with Brahmā, Bhagavān manifested His own abode, of which there is nothing more superior. It is devoid of misery, illusion and fear of offences, and is praised by those who are self-realised. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 2.9.9)

pravartate yatra rajas tamas tayoḥ
sattvaṁ ca miśraṁ na ca kāla-vikramaḥ
na yatra māyā kim utāpare harer
anuvratā yatra surāsurārcitāḥ

In that place, the modes of passion and ignorance do not prevail, and there is no goodness mixed with passion and ignorance. There is no influence of the time factor, so what to speak of māyā. There, the Devas, Asuras and the devotees who are fully obedient, worship Hari. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 2.9.10)

When Brahmā perceived this abode of Vaikuṇṭha and the form of Bhagavān through the his spiritual eyes, then:

tad-darśanāhlāda-pariplutāntaro
hṛśyat-tanuḥ prema-bharāśru-locanaḥ
nanāma pādāmbujam asya viśva-sṛg
yat-pāramahaṁsyena pathādhigamyate

Upon seeing this, his heart became overwhelmed with bliss, his body felt ecstatic, and absorbed in prema, tears poured from his eyes. The creator of the universe thus bowed down to the Lord’s lotus feet and followed the path of the paramahaṁsas. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 2.9.18)

In the Tenth Canto, in the section about Brahmā’s illusion, in the second verse of the prayers of Brahmā, we find the following:

asyāpi deva vapuṣo mad-anugrahasya
svecchāmayasya na tu bhūta-mayasya ko’pi
neśe mahī tv avasituṁ manasāntareṇa
sākṣāt tavaiva kim utātma-sukhānubhūteḥ

O Lord, even I, with a controlled and withdrawn mind, am unable to measure the greatness of this form of Yours, which by Your mercy upon me, has been revealed by You according to Your own will. Indeed, it is not a product of matter. How can I possibly directly experience the pleasure that You derive from Your own self? (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 10.14.2)

By the discernment that was previously discussed, it has been stated in the Vedas as follows:

hiraṇmaye pare kośe virajaṁ brahma niṣkalam
tac chubhraṁ jyotiṣaṁ jyotis tad yad ātma-vido viduḥ

The Supreme, who is pure and undivided, resides within a golden covering. He is splendorous, the light of all lights, He is that which is known by the knowers of the self. (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 2.2.9)

Many persons who are sectarian do not accept this conclusion and refer to him as Brahman, but do not accept him as Bhagavān. Upon inquiring into such profound tattvas, their conclusion will appear to be baseless. Firstly, that Reality is one, not two. As stated in the words of the Bhāgavata, and quoted by Lord Caitanya:

vadanti tat tattva-vidas tattvaṁ yaj jñānam advayam
brahmeti paramātmeti bhagavān iti śabdyate

The seers that know the Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance Brahman, Paramātmā or Bhagavān. (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 1.2.11)

Although Brahman, Paramātmā, and Bhagavān are one tattva, some distinctions can be seen in regards to sādhana. For example, only Bhagavān is the upāsya-tattva (that Reality who is the ultimate object of worship). However, Brahman is simply His effulgence, and Paramātmā is His expansion. It is said in the Nārada Pañcarātra:

jyotir-abhyantare rūpaṁ atulaṁ śyāmasundaram

The incomparable form of Śyāmasundara is within that effulgence. (Nārada Pañcarātra 1.1.3)

Here, jyoti (effulgence) refers to Brahman; therefore, ślokas from the Gītā such as brahmaṇo hi pratiṣṭhāham ( Indeed, I am the foundation of Brahman)*(12) and mama yoni mahad-brahma (the vast expanse of Brahman is My womb)*(13) support this. One meaning is that Brahman is merely the effulgence of Bhagavān. Similarly, the śloka from the Gītā, ekāṁśena sthito jagat (the entire universe is simply by a portion of Myself)*(14) concludes that Bhagavān pervades the universe in the form of Paramātmā. Thus, Paramātmā is an aṁśa (expansion) of Bhagavān. Actually, the use of the words aṁśa and jyoti is only for the sake of clarity. The fundamental reality is that Bhagavān transcends all qualities – therefore, Bhagavān is not explained by the dual qualities of brahmatva, which means supreme vastness, and paramātmatva, which means maximum subtlety. For this reason, Śrīman Mahāprabhu has established that bhagavat-tattva is the most complete manifestation in terms of sādhana than brahma-tattva and paramātmā–tattva. Yet He has not permitted any display of animosity towards the words Brahman or Paramātmā. Otherwise, why would He say, sei advaya-tattva vraje vrajendra-nandana (That non-dual Absolute is the Son of the king of Vraja in Vṛndāvana)?*(15)

*(12) Bhagavad-gītā 14.27
*(13) Bhagavad-gītā 14.3
*(14) Bhagavad-gītā 10.42
*(15) Caitanya-caritāmṛta, Madhya-līlā 20.152

Brahman, Paramātmā and Bhagavān – regardless which of these three names is used – the purity of vaikuṇṭha-tattva is required. Thus, Śrī Caitanyadeva has referred to the following śloka from the Brahma Saṁhitā as the mantra regarding this matter:

īśvaraḥ paramaḥ kṛṣṇaḥ sac-cid-ānanda-vigrahaḥ
anādir ādir govindaḥ sarva-kāraṇa-kāraṇam

The Supreme Lord, the form of sac-cid-ānanda (reality, existence and bliss) is Govinda Kṛṣṇa. He is anādi (without any beginning), the origin of all things, and the cause of all causes. (Brahma Saṁhitā 5.1)

The conclusion regarding this matter is that the form of sac-cid-ānanda is the support of the jīvas. However, if any mundane qualities are attributed to that form, then it becomes māyika. Therefore, the Vedas state:

sa paryagāc chukram akāyam avraṇam
asnāviram śuddham apāpa-viddham
kavir manīṣī paribhūḥ svayambhūr
yāthātathyato’rthān vyadadhāc chāśvatībhyaḥ samābhyaḥ

The Paramātmā pervades all. He is pure, without any form, cannot be harmed, without veins and nerves, without material designations, beyond māyā, wise, omniscient, self-manifested and superior to all. Through His own acintya-śakti, He arranges all other eternal objects by their specific tattvas. (Īśopaniṣad 8)

Śrī Kṛṣṇa is indeed the Supreme Brahman. This is evidenced in prayers of the Devas found in the Rādhā-Hṛdaya Khaṇḍa of the Brahmaṇḍa Purāṇa:

‘sad eva saumyedam agra āsīn’ madhyandino jaguḥ
tvaṁ hi tat paramaṁ brahma tubhyaṁ nityaṁ namo namaḥ

The Madhyandina branch of the Vedas declares, sad eva saumyedam agra āsīt (‘O gentle one, only He who is existence itself was there in the beginning’).*(16) You are that Supreme Brahman. We offer our eternal respects unto You again and again.

*(16) Chāndogya Upaniṣad 6.2.1.

‘dve vidye veditavye’ ca śabda-brahma paraṁ ca yat’
tat tvaṁ hi śabda paramaṁ brahma tasmai natā vayam

It is said, dve vidye veditavye’ ca śabda-brahma paraṁ ca yat (‘There are two kinds of knowledge to know – śabda Brahma and Param Brahma’).*(17) You are indeed Śabda Brahman and the Supreme Brahman. We bow down before You.

*(17) Amṛta-bindu Upaniṣad 17. Śabda Brahma is the Lord in the form of the Vedas. Param Brahma is the Lord who is understood through the Vedas.

ekam evādvitīyaṁ yad bṛhad-āraṇyako’bravit
tad ekaṁ brahma tvaṁ deva tasmai nityaṁ namo namaḥ

The Bṛhad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad states, ekam evādvitīyam (‘He is one without a second’).*(18) O Lord, You are that singular Brahman. We offer our eternal respects unto You again and again.

*(18) Bṛhad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.9.34.

eko vai puruṣo yo hi ‘nityaṁ sad-asad-ātmakam’
śruti-dvayasya viṣayaṁ tvāṁ naumi puruṣo’vyayam

Eko vai puruṣo (‘At first, there was only the Supreme Person’)*(19) and nityaṁ sad-asad-ātmakam (‘He is the eternal cause and effect’)*(20) You are the subject of these two statements of the śruti. We offer our respects unto You, the imperishable Supreme Person.

*(19) Mahā Upaniṣad 1.
*(20) Viṣṇu Purāṇa 1.2.19.

When analysing vaikuntha-tattva, it is necessary to determine what is understood in terms of mundane language. Therefore, the following sūtra is there.

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

aprākṛtasya vaikuṇṭhasya pūrvoktam adhokṣajatvaṁ sthirī-kartum indriyādīnāṁ prākṛtatvaṁ prakaṭayati.

In order to establish that the transcendental Vaikuṇṭha is adhokṣaja (beyond the reach of the mundane senses), the material nature of the senses etc will be described.

SŪTRA 30

indriyāṇi tad-viṣayās-taj-jāta-bhāvāś ca manasā saha prākṛtāś cid-upādhitvāj janyatvāc ca

(The senses, the objects of the senses, and whatever is born from them, along with the mind, are material due to their being a superimposition upon consciousness, and also because they are created.)

Sanskrit Commentary by Śrī Gopīnātha Paṇḍita

indriyāṇi jñānendriyāni karmendriyāṇi ca, teṣāṁ viṣayā rūpa-rasādayaḥ viṣaya-padam upalakṣaṇaṁ karmendriya-vihita-gaty-ādi-kriyāś ca taj-jāta-bhāvāḥ viṣayendriya-sambandha-janita-mānasa-vikārāś ca manasā saha saṅkalpa-vikalpātmakaṁ mano’pi sarva eva ete padārthāḥ prākṛtā prakṛti-sambandhina eva cid-upādhitvāt, yataś cit-padārthopādhaya ete janyatvāc ca sṛjya-kārya-vargatvāt. ‘evam etasmād ātmanaḥ sarve prāṇāḥ sarvendriyāṇīti’ ‘tan-mano’sṛjata’ ityādi-śruteś ca.

The senses, including the knowledge-acquiring senses, the working senses, along with their objects, such as form, taste etc, the terms that indicate these objects, the actions prescribed by the working senses, the thoughts arising from them, which are generated by the connection of the senses with their objects, along with mental transformations, as well as the mind which is characterised by saṅkalpa-vikalpa (accepting and rejecting) – all these substances are indeed mundane, related to material nature, due to their being a superimposition upon consciousness. Because they are imposed upon a conscious substance, they are produced and belong to the category of functional things that are created. The śrūti says, ‘From Him, all the life airs and the senses arose.’ and ‘He created the mind.’*(21)

*(21) Neither of these original verses could be located. The first seems similar to Bṛhad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.1.20. The second is similar to Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā 4.2.3)

Commentary by Śrīla Bhaktivinoda Ṭhākura

The working senses, along with the various thoughts that arise through them, as well as the mind which is characterised by saṅkalpa-vikalpa, are all material. All the senses are connected to the physical body, and therefore material. All the thoughts or impressions that arise from a connection with the senses are simply an image of material substances. Although a horse-drawn carriage, a river etc. that one has previously seen, remains in the mind as an image, they are still material. The image of a material element is never non-material. The thoughts that arise in the mind regarding Svarga etc. are also material. The mind is also a material substance. Many short-sighted persons perceive the mind to be spiritual, but upon deeper analysis, one will certainly understand the mind to be material. The ātmā is self-evident and intrinsically consciousness; therefore, it is not characterised by saṅkalpa-vikalpa.

The nature of the mind is such that, holding onto the certainty of thoughts provided by the senses, many imaginary concepts arise through experience, elaboration, and reasoning. All these activities are those of a jīva in a state of subjugation. In that situation, knowledge of the state of liberation is not attainable since it exists in perfection. A function which does not remain with the jīva in all conditions cannot be said to be an eternal function. Therefore, the mind is only a superimposed function. By acknowledging this, it cannot be referred to as the function of the ātmā; thus, the mind is inherently material in its activities. However, the mind is superior to many subtle material substances. The Kaṭha Upaniṣad says:

indriyebhyaḥ parā hy arthā arthebhyaś ca paraṁ manaḥ
manasas tu parā buddhir buddher ātmā mahān paraḥ
mahataḥ param avyaktam avyaktāt puruṣaḥ paraḥ
puruṣān na paraṁ kiñcit sa kaṣṭhā sā parā gatiḥ

The sense-objects are superior to the senses; the mind is superior to the sense-objects; intelligence is superior to the mind, but the ātmā is certainly superior to the intelligence. The Impersonal Absolute is superior to the living entity, and the Supreme Person is superior to the Impersonal Absolute. There is nothing greater than the Supreme Person. He is the highest, the supreme destination. (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.10-11)